information of terrorist violence as a factor generating more terrorist violence
information of terrorist violence as a factor generating more terrorist violence
(Posted in Law No. 277 of November 17, 2009). JOSÉ FRANCISCO
THE SOLAR
Lawyer PUCP and U. Central de Venezuela (UCV). Criminologist
. Master in Criminal Science. Journalist
Graduate Center of Advanced Military Studies Professor at the UIGV
terrorist violence certainly caused a deep political crisis, economic and social development in Peru for two decades, from 1980 to 2000. However, in the first (1980-1990), there were the most bloody and devastating events were accompanied, unfortunately, by an intensive information campaign journalism that, indeed, failed to live up to this difficult situation, becoming On the contrary, an important factor generating more violence.
CRISIS AND INFORMATION
VIOLENCE Violence was generated by both the Communist Party of Peru, called Sendero Luminoso (SL) and the Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (MRTA). This escalation of violence began on May 17, 1980, in the district of Chuschis, Ayacucho, with the burning of ballot boxes elections called by the military government of General Francisco Morales-Bermúdez Cerruti, to return to democracy and hand over power the candidate who the people chose. There were two candidates with greater choice, the Popular Action (Fernando Belaunde Terry) and (APRA Armando Villanueva del Campo). Weeks later, SL attributed to the fact and started a fire in the deep gorges of the Andes. Massacred both communal and district authorities as defenseless peasants. Lima
paid no more attention to these facts. The Interior Minister, José María de la Jara and Ureta blamed the cattle rustlers made while the senior director of the Civil Guard, Lieutenant General John Balaguer GC Morales, spoke of a political plan of the ultra left. This undoubtedly led to the separation of high official position he held, being replaced by Lieutenant General GC Catter Humberto Arredondo, who showed permeability to the minister and confirmed what he had said. In sum, while government policy was to minimize the actions "subversive" walkers intensified its violent action and went on to commit the crime of terrorism. The example is in the atavistic terrorist attack led by the Lagos Gloria Edith Sáenz, at Christmas 1980. Our legislation is not criminalized, so the government passed the D. Legislative N ° 046 of 03/10/1981. Immediately after creating the Anti-Terrorism (DIRCOTE) as a specialized body of the Investigative Police of Peru (PIP)
As the situation worsened and the national press began to deal with internal problems, exposing the bloody events criminal and indifference by the government, he was forced to declare a "State of Emergency" in the departments of Ayacucho, Apurimac and Huancavelica, under Article 231 of the Constitution of 1979 and order "to maintain order internal "to the Armed Forces, Quine took it in December 1982. In late January 1983, eight journalists fall Uchuruccay, news went around the world. Consequently, the field was already turned on and began to burn steadily. The front pages of newspapers and magazines as well as "flashes" of radio and TV., Were stained with blood, fire, tears, attacks, kidnappings and persecution, perhaps engendering more violence (intended purpose of terrorism), both terrorist offenders as bad or wrong in some members of law enforcement (perhaps in self-defense or revenge), and the Peruvian people resigned accepted what is called the "Culture of the blackout and curfew."
Moreover, the government responded by criminalizing the offense of "glorification of terrorism" to which this amended and incorporated in Article 288 "D" of the Penal Code. Later, in an effort to provide viable and procedurally constitutional guarantees to citizens the President Belaunde enacted the Law of Habeas Corpus and Amparo Act (Law No. 23,506), the 8-12.1982. So we as a country lawyer and vice dean of the College of journalism is the defense of many colleagues who were unfairly and wrongly accused by the new crime of "glorification of terrorism."
RESEARCH
This grave situation, we were concerned since . Only after a reasonable time has elapsed, we decided to conduct a thorough scientific investigation of descriptive and explanatory level ex-post facto, with l in order to determine what were the root causes that generate media coverage reach more acts of terrorist violence. In order to be comprehensive, we review four theories of social sciences that have worked and are working with boldness the causes and consequences of violence, such as Criminology, Science Communication, Psychology and Sociology. It is obvious that these sciences since they began studying the phenomenon of violence pose were discordant. Let's see.
Criminology is true that the information gives a "determinant influence on, while the three next-Communication Science, psychology and sociology," notes that "influence is decisive." But also, the theory of communication provides the thesis that the influence is more on the receiver / audience in the media, which was a new approach to this study. Words
other words less, we decided to compare these theoretical approaches with empirical reality science investigation. This allowed us to verify that the media coverage was established in factor generating terrorist violence or may serve the media as a sounding board or stimulus intervening in the commission of acts of terrorist violence, given the partial successes in fight or political confrontation military and terrorist criminals then governments and law enforcement, in particular, and against the "bourgeois democratic system" in general, which they thought they could break down or destroy creating chaos and terror in society, in the State nation, to build a new one. Which obviously did not happen or could happen because the nation-state, read people, was solid and its security forces (armed forces and National Police) were still operative capability of war, total destruction of the enemy. This, obviously, if it had been necessary as a last resort to meet legitimate and legally in order to defend freedom, democracy, the Constitution and laws.
BASED RESEARCH Research on the one hand, was made on the news reports of terrorist violence in the major media in the period of 1980-1990, and on the other hand, were surveyed as 278 terrorists sample of a population of 1 000 subjects convicted of the crime now serving a sentence, now pardoned, now released after serving sentence. Also conducted a background interview some of them, especially to those recognized as major leaders.
anxious to know
We formulate then the following questions: Were they really the social media or mass media agents harmful to society?. Or was the kind of information, content or messages, which hurt the audience / receiver?. And in this sense, was it then possible that the information generated more terrorist violence terrorist violence?.
Obviously, get the answers to these concerns was not simple or easy task. Required, rather, on the one hand, a deep theoretical analysis and, on the other hand, the field research mentioned above. THEORIES
Violence has always been present in all or almost all revolutionary movements that have sought to reform the social, economic and political. Thus, violence is inherent to human nature and gives more or less in all social relations. It can only be influenced by the degree of socialization, says Philip RP MacGregor SJ, former rector of the PUCP and student of this problem.
On violence and terrorism there are many good research from multiple perspectives, both national and foreign authors. Among the former, for example, Gonzalo Portocarrero: Structural Violence: Sociology (1990), César Rodríguez Rabanal: structural violence: Psychoanalysis (1990), Gustavo Gorriti E: Path: History of ancient war in Peru (1991); Francisco Eguiguren P.: Structural Violence: Law (1990), María del Pilar Tello: Peru: the price of peace (1991 , etc.). Moreover, on the other hand, the Peruvian government was concerned by this phenomenon and in 2001 formed the Commission of Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC), which was established to study, analyze and interpret the terrorist violence from 1980 to 2000.
other words Words least all agree that when the economic, social and political life of a nation-state is not viable the implementation of its citizens, there is structural violence, institutional and personnel overflow the legal limits and / or normal frustrations, committing crimes or misdemeanors, both those in power-government, as of the governed-the people-in a series of structures domination. "
CRIMINOLOGY
If violence is in man and can lead to crime, and also the degree of socialization to self-realization has a great influence on the commissions, then violence is also object of study in criminology. Moreover, while today it is accepted that criminology is an interdisciplinary social science and prominence its comprehensive approach BIO-Psychic-SOCIAL raised by the French criminologist and professor Jean Pinatel (1), so that criminologists have structured a criminological theory of violence as holding the Argentine Israelite origin criminologist, Israel Drapkin (2 ), it has been enriched with a multidisciplinary approach. Assessment which took into account to study, analyze and interpret the specific case of terrorist violence developed in Peru, in the tragic decade of the 80's.
The increase in criminal activities by terrorist groups, suggested to the authorities and public opinion was due to the wide and even excessive information of terrorist violence. To do this, some scholars dusted theories and approaches of journalism and propaganda, now grouped in the disciplines of Communication Sciences.
In fact, in this context, communication theory says that repetition of information (content or message) leads to action as the communications expert and professor says Venezuelan Hector Mujica. (3) This is dealt with when dealing with aspects of the media, which, as a species of communication, is to strengthen and expand the message by the issuer and ending with the adaptation (action) of the recipient / addressee in process communication. The spread is used in press campaigns for party propaganda, ideological or religious, for the advertisement for sale of goods or services and public relations to achieve the integration of common interests and complementary needs of man, the entity corporate and society.
If it is true that on terrorism in particular and violence in general has written extensively, both in Peru and abroad, the fact remains that very little or nothing has been investigated, and not published, on the information terrorist violence as a factor generating more terrorist violence. In this context, for example, how was propaganda used by terrorists?, how they used the information provided by them, What were the excessive use of terrorist violence information?, etc.
On the other hand, starting Pinatel study, we formulated the hypothesis of "criminal terrorist criminal personality", identifying it with the following characteristics: 1. Egocentrism. Believed to be the elected or want to be the center of attention. 2. Emotional indifference or moral insensitivity. Perversity. 3. Lability. Easily prone to fall or to pass the act criminal. 4. Aggressiveness. Large capacity innate violence and destruction. Criminal personality summarize Eila with the acronym. (4)
STIGMA OF THE PRESS
was the father of criminology, Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909), who originally "stigmatized the pernicious influence of the press" as Pinatel statement. (5) Indeed, Lombroso, said: "These excitations morbid, are now hundredfold increase those papers truly prodigious criminal who wet his pen in the most fetid corruption of the social ills and, in the only goal of a profit abject , excites unhealthy appetites and the most morbid curiosity of the lower social classes, and I compare them with those worms that come out of putrefaction, the further increase their presence. "(6) With him was" the origin of the traditional theory that implicates additional incentives to crime that result from certain media, "says Pinatel (7)
Thereafter, began the study of the press as criminogenic factor. Soon after, he was also incorporated into the film under the great development which held thanks to technological advances. Within these parameters, in 1918, the famous American criminologist Maurice Parmelee, Ph. D., professor in philosophy and major universities in the country, said in his work entitled Criminology on " influence of tabloid newspapers in the so-called yellow, the propensity for crime alerts that provide for criminal acts. "(8)
these statements were also echoed in Peru, now accepted or rejected. In the first approach were, among others, Manuel Prada González-Ulloa, Francisco García Calderón Rey and the famous criminal lawyer and criminologist Mimbela Eduardo de los Santos, who sustained: "It is undeniable that the theory of imitation are truths almost Evening absolute relation to the crime. Hence, factors such as film and media criminology have significant impact on the offense. All Quiet on the offense was imitated or copied by other criminals. "(9) In the second, lies the San Marcos professor and criminologist Oscar Miró Quesada of the war, saying that the press only exerted some influence on the predisposition of man to commit crime, however, the incidence was very "little thing" as the criminologist said after Stephan Hurwitz, a professor at the University of Copenhagen in his powerful study, "La presse et la criminalité." (10)
Therefore, until end of the 70 positions had two issue or found: 1. The direct cause, which is traditional and part with Lombroso and has continued to assert itself information that violence is a criminogenic factor, which acceded Pinatel, Drapkin, Joseph Klapper, Albert Bandura, Leonard Berkowitz, Jean Chazal, Jose Lopez Riocerezo; Armand Mattelari, Herbert Schiller, Fernando Tocora, among others. 2. The cathartic action, based on psychoanalytic theory that defends the position that information only produces more violence cathartic effect (release) and no generator of violence.
But then came a third ethical. 3. The responsibility, which requires ethical behavior from the press or media information violent content, preservation of function or purpose thereof. Was supported by the Jesuit priest Tony Mifsud, SJ, in his study "The media (or conflict? Social." Coming from Reality, is a self, I argue that held him responsible press interested in "promoting and maintain compliance with high ethical standards which invariably should regulate the national press, "according to the principles of the Peruvian Press Council (11).
communication technology
While it is true that in the late eighteenth century, British jurist and politician Edmund Burke called the press "fourth power" it is also true that this power is continuing and has been studying the theory of communication.
was called "Chicago School" was originally promoted by the communicator Paul F. Lazarsfeld, who gave consistency to the group of empirical research in the Bureau of Applied Social Research at Columbia University and strengthened the Mass Communication Research. The consolidated Professor Wilber Schram, who provided the communication process (a source, a message and a destination) and the existence of feedback or feed-back. In 1956 he was determined that the influence of mass media was not so decisive in accordance with the results of the study by sociologist U.S. and broadcaster Dennis Mc Quail (12)
On the other hand, Germany had emerged the "Frankfurt School" with Theodor Adorno and Herbert Marcuse and subsequently incorporated Jürgen Habermas. She was devoted to study mass communication or mass and concluded that the mass media served to alienate the man to encourage the culture industry, and advertising propaganda for consumerism of ideas and products, respectively. Concluding that there was influence of the communication behavior of the receiver.
Faced with these two opposing positions emerged third made by the social psychologist Melvin De Fleur, who sustainability in two theories: 1. Of individual differences, noting that all human beings are different according to our psychological makeup, taking into account the "level of attention and perception." 2. Cultural norms, stating that "individual behavior is usually guided by cultural norms (or actor prints of what are the rules) for an idea or situation." (13)
In particular, De Fleur concluded that "the media can influence" in the audience that is not uniform and can be manipulated or influenced in terms of individual differences and cultural norms in the following aspects: i) reinforce existing patterns, ii) create new shared convictions about lesser-known songs by the receiver, and iii) Change existing standards when they are not well established. Without doubt it was decisive to the extent that information dissemination becomes consistently generating the changes sought by the issuer to varying degrees in the receiver according to his intellectual and moral quality, having both the advantages of communication technology: the issuer has favor the impact and replication, while the receiver has the zaping and variety of programs.
PSYCHOLOGY OF VIOLENCE
To formulate a psychological theory of violence has had on human aggression, personality and the causes of their achievement. As for the psychological theories of human aggression, as writers John Darley, Sam Glucksberg and Ronald Kinchla, "originally part of theories of learning and conditioning. They were then extended by the prospect of Albert Bandura's social learning and others who recognized that many of the aggressive acts are learned through observation. "(14)
Indeed, Bandura provided valuable research with the existence of observational learning and has therefore been included in the "theory of direct cause" of the influence of press as a criminogenic factor or generator of violence in Criminology, as the eminent criminologist says professor Alejandro Solis Espinoza. (15) However, there are other positions, however, the truth is that reality has given reason to Bandura, especially when one's "communication theory" gives such importance to the media. SOCIOLOGY AND VIOLENCE
is no doubt that sociology is to study the social reality. And this is to explain the nature and relationships that it creates. It calls for a description and analysis to understand social reality. On the subject of the influence of information there are many theories, however, in short, sociologists of the media have found that "the spread of mass media is highly correlated with various indices of development: literacy, urbanization, per capita income, etc ... that in developed countries there is a close relationship between mass media use and attitudes, behavior, and the information held about social change ", says Mark Quail. (16)
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES The overall objective was to assess the media coverage generated terrorist violence during the years 1980 to 1990. Specific objectives
were: i) establish whether the review of facts apologetic influenced the amount of terrorist violence from 1980 to 1990. ii) establish whether the side effects of apologetic actions influenced the amount of news on terrorist violence in the period. iii) establish whether the content analysis of the various acts of terrorist violence adversely affected the media during the years 1980 to 1990. iv) Whether the information of terrorist violence exerted a major media in the media during the years 1980 to 1990. v) Determine whether the backlash of State influence information on terrorist activities through the mass media were not the cause or origin of the increase during the years 1980 to 1990. CONCLUSIONS
1. It was established that the review of facts apologetic influenced the amount of terrorist violence from 1980 to 1990.
2. It was established that the side effects of apologetic actions influenced the amount of news about the terrorist violence of the years 1980 to 1990. 3. It was determined that the content analysis of the various acts of terrorist violence adversely affected the media during the years 1980 to 1990.
4. It was determined that the factual information of terrorist violence in media exerted a major media during the years 1980 to 1990.
5. It was established that the violent reaction of the State influenced the information of terrorist activities through the mass media, however, were not the cause or origin of the increase in violent acts during the years 1980 to 1990.
Finally, as a general conclusion, it was established that the media coverage was established in generating factor of more terrorist violence during the years 1980 to 1990.
RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Promote and achieve an agreement between the owners and / or directors of the media to set limits on the information on terrorist violence or not, control or censorship by clearly marked in codes of ethics, with the main purpose to avoid being sounding boards for illegal acts that give any importance or prominence to the authors, to instil terror , plunged in anxiety or create instability in certain orders, political, economic and / or social. In this vein, including the alarming economic information generated and is classified as economic terrorism.
2. Tending to raise the cultural levels of the popular segments C, D and E, in order to enrich their individual differences and have greater social self with strong ethical and moral formation, rich in values, such as the cult of truth, responsibility, fairness and solidarity, allowing them to reject and repudiate violence information and, consequently, the acts of terrorist violence. This will create a culture for peace, which can be enhanced by feelings of solidarity and social justice. ----------------
(1) Pinatel, Jean. Criminology, Volume III in the Treaty on Criminal Law and Criminology and Jean Pierre Bouzat Pinatel, second edition, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Faculty of Law, Caracas, 1974, 761 pp.
(2) Drapkin, Israel. Criminology of Violence, Ediciones Depalma, Buenos Aires, 1984, 138 pp.
(3) Mujica, Héctor. The Empire of the news. Caracas. Editions of the Library of the Universidad Central de Venezuela, 1967. p. 29.
(4) DEL SOLAR, José Francisco. "Criminology and terrorism" in the Journal of the Forum, the CAL-Year LXXIV No. 2, July-December 1987.pp. 169-186.
(5) Pinatel, Jean. Op. p. 169.
(6) Lombroso, Cesare. Theory of the born criminal. 1899. p. 252.
(7) Pinatel, Jean. Op. p. 169.
(8) Parmelee, Maurice. Criminology. Madrid. Editorial Reus SA 1925. p. 126.
(9) Mimbela DE LOS SANTOS, Eduardo. Criminology. UNMSM. Lima. 1988. p. 164.
(10) HURWITZ, Stephan. Criminology. Barcelona. Ediciones Ariel. 1956. 186-191.
(11) STATEMENT publications appearing in the leading newspapers of 11.29.1996.
(12) MC QUAIL, Dennis. Influences and effects of mass media. Fondo de Cultura Economica. Mexico. 1981. p. 87.
(13) DE FLEUR, Melvin. Theory of Mass Communication. Polity Press. Buenos Aires. 1975. p. 180.
(14) AA.VV. Psychology. Princeton University. Fourth edition. Prentice-Hall Hispano SA Mexico 1990. p. 763.
(15) ESPINOZA Solis, Alejandro. Criminology. Contemporary landscape. Lima. Book Publishers and Distributors EDDILIS.A. 1986. p. 136 et seq.
(16) MC QUAIL, Dennis. Sociology of mass media. Paris. Gram Editions Mont SA 1973. p. 111. HISTORY
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